{"id":1467,"date":"2025-10-27T05:28:16","date_gmt":"2025-10-26T21:28:16","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/muma.my\/?p=1467"},"modified":"2025-10-27T05:28:16","modified_gmt":"2025-10-26T21:28:16","slug":"%e3%80%8a%e9%80%bb%e8%be%91%e5%ae%9e%e8%b7%b5%e3%80%8blogic-in-practice","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/muma.my\/?p=1467","title":{"rendered":"\u300a\u903b\u8f91\u5b9e\u8df5\u300bLogic in Practice"},"content":{"rendered":"

\n\t\u4e25\u5143\u7ae0\u85cf\u4e66<\/span>0160<\/span>\n<\/p>\n

\n\t <\/span>\n<\/p>\n

\n\t\u300a\u903b\u8f91\u5b9e\u8df5\u300b<\/u><\/strong><\/span>Logic in Practice<\/u><\/strong><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

\n\t <\/span>\n<\/p>\n

\n\t\"\"
\n<\/span>\n<\/p>\n

\n\t
\n<\/span>\n<\/p>\n

\n\t\u300a\u903b\u8f91\u5b9e\u8df5\u300b<\/span>\uff08<\/span>Logic in Practice<\/span>\uff09\u65e8\u5728\u9610\u8ff0\u5065\u5168\u63a8\u7406\u7684\u539f\u5219\u4e0e\u4e60\u60ef\u3002\u4f5c\u8005\u5f3a\u8c03<\/span><\/strong>\u903b\u8f91\u7684\u91cd\u8981\u6027<\/span>\u5728\u4e8e\u5e2e\u52a9\u4eba\u4eec\u907f\u514d\u5e38\u89c1\u7684\u601d\u7ef4\u7f3a\u9677\uff0c\u5e76\u4e3a\u5176\u4e3b\u5f20\u63d0\u4f9b<\/span><\/strong>\u6b63\u5f53\u7684\u7406\u7531<\/span>**<\/span>\u3002\u4e66\u4e2d\u8ba8\u8bba\u4e86<\/span>\u76ee\u7684\u6027\u601d\u7ef4<\/span><\/strong>\u7684\u672c\u8d28\uff0c\u5e76\u6df1\u5165\u63a2\u8ba8\u4e86<\/span>\u6f14\u7ece\u63a8\u7406<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Deductive
\nReasoning<\/span>\uff09\u7684\u5404\u79cd\u5f62\u5f0f\u53ca\u5176<\/span>\u5f62\u5f0f\u6761\u4ef6<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Formal Conditions<\/span>\uff09\uff0c\u5982\u5e94\u7528\u539f\u5219\u548c\u6a21\u62df\u63a8\u7406\u3002\u6b64\u5916\uff0c\u6587\u672c\u8fd8\u5206\u6790\u4e86<\/span>\u6b67\u4e49\u3001\u4e0d\u786e\u5b9a\u6027\u548c\u76f8\u5173\u6027<\/span><\/strong>\u5728\u6e05\u6670\u601d\u7ef4\u4e2d\u7684\u6311\u6218\uff0c\u4ee5\u53ca\u5982\u4f55<\/span>\u8bc4\u4f30\u8bc1\u636e<\/span><\/strong>\u3001\u533a\u5206<\/span>\u5f52\u7eb3\u4e0e\u6f14\u7ece<\/span><\/strong>\uff0c\u5e76\u63a2\u7a76\u4e86\u4eba\u4eec\u5f62\u6210<\/span>\u4fe1\u5ff5\u7684\u57fa\u7840<\/span><\/strong>\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

\n\t <\/span>\n<\/p>\n

\n\t\u300a<\/span>Logic in Practice<\/span>\u300b\u4e00\u4e66\u7531\u4f26\u6566\u5927\u5b66\u54f2\u5b66\u665a\u671f\u6559\u6388<\/span> L.
\nSusan Stebbing <\/span>\u535a\u58eb\u64b0\u5199\u3002\u672c\u4e66\u5c5e\u4e8e<\/span> METHUEN’S MONOGRAPHS ON
\nPHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY <\/span>\u7cfb\u5217\uff0c\u603b\u7f16\u8f91\u4e3a<\/span> G. C. Field<\/span>\u3002\u8be5\u4e66\u4e8e<\/span> 1934 <\/span>\u5e74<\/span> 1 <\/span>\u6708<\/span> 18 <\/span>\u65e5\u9996\u6b21\u51fa\u7248\uff0c\u5e76\u4e8e<\/span> 1954 <\/span>\u5e74\u53d1\u884c\u4e86\u4fee\u8ba2\u548c\u91cd\u7f6e\u7684\u7b2c\u56db\u7248\uff0c\u7531<\/span> C. W. K. Mundle <\/span>\u4fee\u8ba2\u548c\u6821\u6b63\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

\n\t\u4f5c\u8005\u6307\u51fa\uff0c\u5728\u65e5\u5e38\u751f\u6d3b\u4e2d\uff0c\u4eba\u4eec\u666e\u904d\u8ba4\u4e3a\u7684\u300c\u77e5\u8bc6\u300d\u5f80\u5f80\u53ea\u662f\u4eba\u4eec\u62b1\u6301\u7684\u4fe1\u5ff5\uff0c\u8fd9\u4e9b\u4fe1\u5ff5\u7f3a\u4e4f\u6e05\u6670\u5ea6\uff0c\u4e14\u4eba\u4eec\u5e76\u4e0d\u6e05\u695a\u81ea\u5df1\u7a76\u7adf\u58f0\u79f0\u77e5\u9053\u4ec0\u4e48\u3002\u5373\u4f7f\u4fe1\u5ff5\u6070\u5de7\u4e3a\u771f\uff0c\u7f3a\u4e4f\u7cbe\u786e\u6027\u4ee5\u53ca\u5bf9\u4fe1\u5ff5\u57fa\u7840\u7684\u8ba4\u8bc6\uff0c\u4e5f\u53ef\u80fd\u5bfc\u81f4\u4eba\u4eec\u6301\u6709\u76f8\u4e92\u77db\u76fe\u7684\u5176\u4ed6\u4fe1\u5ff5\u3002\u903b\u8f91\u5b66\u5173\u6ce8\u7684\u6b63\u662f<\/span>\u5065\u5168\u63a8\u7406\u539f\u5219\u7684\u6e05\u6670\u9610\u8ff0<\/span><\/strong>\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

\n\t\u672c\u4e66\u5e76\u975e\u65e8\u5728\u63d0\u4f9b\u903b\u8f91\u5b66\u5165\u95e8\u4ecb\u7ecd\uff0c\u800c\u662f\u4e13\u4e3a\u90a3\u4e9b\u63a8\u7406\u65f6\u800c\u5065\u5168\u3001\u65f6\u800c\u8c2c\u8bef\uff0c\u4e14\u7ecf\u5e38\u4e0d\u660e\u767d\u4e24\u8005\u533a\u522b\u7684\u4eba\u6240\u5199\u3002\u867d\u7136\u5355\u7eaf\u7814\u7a76\u903b\u8f91\u4e0d\u8db3\u4ee5\u786e\u4fdd\u63a8\u7406\u6b63\u786e\u6216\u601d\u7ef4\u6e05\u6670\uff0c\u7279\u522b\u662f\u5728\u6d89\u53ca\u70ed\u5207\u4fe1\u5ff5\u65f6\uff0c\u4f46\u4e86\u89e3\u5065\u5168\u601d\u7ef4\u5fc5\u987b\u9075\u5faa\u7684\u6761\u4ef6\uff0c\u6709\u52a9\u4e8e\u4eba\u4eec\u907f\u514d\u5e38\u89c1\u7684\u9519\u8bef\u3002\u4f5c\u8005\u7279\u522b\u5f3a\u8c03\u4e86<\/span>\u8bed\u8a00\u7684\u91cd\u8981\u6027<\/span><\/strong>\uff0c\u8bed\u8a00\u662f\u6211\u4eec\u601d\u8003\u7684\u5de5\u5177\uff0c\u4f46\u5b83\u4e0e\u6240\u6709\u4eba\u7c7b\u521b\u9020\u7269\u4e00\u6837\uff0c\u5e76\u4e0d\u5b8c\u7f8e\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

\n\t\u4ee5\u4e0b\u662f\u672c\u4e66\u5404\u7ae0\u8282\u7684\u8be6\u7ec6\u4e66\u8bc4\u6574\u7406\uff1a<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

\n\t\u7b2c\u4e00\u7ae0\uff1a\u76ee\u6807\u5bfc\u5411\u7684\u601d\u7ef4\uff08<\/span>Purposive Thinking<\/span>\uff09<\/span><\/span>
\n<\/h3>\n

\n\t\u672c\u7ae0\u5f3a\u8c03\u601d\u8003\u662f\u4e00\u79cd\u6d3b\u52a8\uff0c\u601d\u8003\u7684\u76ee\u7684\u662f\u4e3a\u4e86\u884c\u52a8\u3002<\/span>\u76ee\u6807\u5bfc\u5411\u7684\u601d\u7ef4<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Purposive thinking<\/span>\uff09\u9488\u5bf9\u4e00\u4e2a\u6301\u7eed\u5173\u6ce8\u7684\u95ee\u9898\u800c\u8fdb\u884c\uff0c\u4e0e\u95f2\u6563\u7684\u9050\u60f3\uff08<\/span>idle reverie<\/span>\uff09\u76f8\u5bf9\u3002\u601d\u8003\u7684\u672c\u8d28\u662f\u63d0\u95ee\u5e76\u8bd5\u56fe\u56de\u7b54\u95ee\u9898\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

\n\t\u672c\u7ae0\u901a\u8fc7\u4e00\u8258\u5931\u706b\u8f6e\u8239\u7684\u4f8b\u5b50\uff0c\u533a\u5206\u4e86<\/span>\u5b9e\u8df5\u601d\u7ef4<\/span><\/strong>\u4e0e<\/span>\u7406\u8bba\u601d\u7ef4<\/span><\/strong>\uff0c\u4e24\u8005\u7684\u533a\u522b\u5b8c\u5168\u53d6\u51b3\u4e8e\u601d\u8003\u7684\u76ee\u7684\u3002\u667a\u80fd\u5730\u5904\u7406\u95ee\u9898\u6d89\u53ca\u4e09\u4e2a\u6b65\u9aa4\uff1a\u9886\u609f\u5f15\u53d1\u95ee\u9898\u7684\u60c5\u5883\u3001\u660e\u786e\u610f\u8bc6\u5230\u95ee\u9898\u3001\u4ee5\u53ca<\/span>\u9610\u660e\u89e3\u51b3\u65b9\u6848\u5fc5\u987b\u9075\u5faa\u7684\u6761\u4ef6<\/span><\/strong>\u3002\u6709\u6548\u7684\u601d\u8003\u9700\u8981<\/span>\u6392\u9664\u4e0d\u76f8\u5173\u7684\u5efa\u8bae<\/span><\/strong>\uff0c\u5e76\u4ec5\u4ee5\u76f8\u5173\u7684\u8003\u8651\u56e0\u7d20\u4e3a\u6307\u5bfc\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

\n\t\u5047\u8bbe<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>hypotheses<\/span>\uff09\u662f\u4e3a\u4e86\u5bf9\u53d1\u751f\u7684\u4e8b\u60c5\u63d0\u4f9b\u89e3\u91ca\u800c\u63d0\u51fa\u7684\u63a8\u6d4b\uff0c\u8fd9\u4e9b\u63a8\u6d4b\u53ea\u6709\u5728\u53ef\u4ee5\u88ab\u68c0\u9a8c\u65f6\u624d\u503c\u5f97\u63d0\u51fa\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

\n\t\u601d\u8003\u95ee\u9898\u6d89\u53ca<\/span>\u63a8\u8bba<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>inference<\/span>\uff09\uff0c\u5373\u601d\u8003\u8005\u4ece\u65e2\u5b9a\u6216\u5047\u8bbe\u7684\u4e8b\u7269\uff08<\/span>\u57fa\u636e<\/span><\/strong>\uff0c<\/span>datum<\/span>\uff09\u8fc7\u6e21\u5230\u4ed6\u6240\u63a5\u53d7\u7684\u7ed3\u8bba\u3002\u5c06\u89c2\u5bdf\u5230\u7684\u4e8b\u5b9e\u89c6\u4e3a<\/span>\u8bc1\u636e<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>evidence<\/span>\uff09\uff0c\u5c31\u662f\u5c06\u8be5\u4e8b\u5b9e\u89c6\u4e3a\u6307\u793a\u7740\u67d0\u4e9b\u5176\u4ed6\u4e8b\u5b9e\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

\n\t\u5173\u8054\u6027<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>relevance<\/span>\uff09\u7684\u6982\u5ff5\u88ab\u5b9a\u4e49\u4e3a\u5bf9\u5f53\u524d\u95ee\u9898\u7684\u610f\u4e49\u3002<\/span>\u610f\u4e49<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Significance<\/span>\uff09\u662f<\/span>\u8bb0\u53f7<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>signs<\/span>\uff09\u7684\u7279\u6027\uff0c\u8bb0\u53f7\u6307\u793a\u7740\u81ea\u8eab\u4ee5\u5916\u7684\u4e8b\u7269\u3002\u6709\u6548\u601d\u8003\u7684\u5173\u952e\u5728\u4e8e\u80fd\u591f\u8fa8\u8bc6\u51fa<\/span>\u76f8\u5173\u7684\u8054\u7cfb<\/span><\/strong>\uff0c\u5e76\u907f\u514d\u4efb\u610f\u5730\u8054\u7cfb\u4e0d\u88ab\u89c6\u4e3a\u5177\u6709\u610f\u4e49\u7684\u8981\u7d20\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

\n\t\u7b2c\u4e8c\u7ae0\uff1a\u5f62\u5f0f\u7684\u91cd\u8981\u6027\uff08<\/span>The Importance of Form<\/span>\uff09<\/span><\/span>
\n<\/h3>\n

\n\t\u672c\u7ae0\u63a2\u8ba8\u901a\u8fc7\u63a8\u8bba\u83b7\u5f97\u77e5\u8bc6\u7684\u8fc7\u7a0b\u3002\u5b83\u63a2\u8ba8\u4e86\u4eba\u4eec\u5982\u4f55\u6839\u636e\u5bf9\u4e8b\u7269\u4e00\u822c\u884c\u4e3a\u65b9\u5f0f\u7684\u5047\u8bbe\u6765\u5e94\u7528\u77e5\u8bc6\u3002<\/span>\u7c7b\u540d<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>class-names<\/span>\uff0c\u6216\u79f0\u666e\u901a\u540d\u8bcd\uff09\u7684\u4f7f\u7528\u6709\u52a9\u4e8e\u8282\u7701\u601d\u7ef4\uff0c\u56e0\u4e3a\u5b83\u4eec\u6307\u7684\u662f\u5bf9\u6211\u4eec\u7684\u76ee\u7684\u800c\u8a00\u91cd\u8981\u7684\u5171\u540c\u5c5e\u6027\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

\n\t\u91cd\u8981\u6027<\/span><\/strong>\u53d6\u51b3\u4e8e<\/span>\u76ee\u7684\u548c\u89c2\u70b9<\/span><\/strong>\u3002\u5bf9\u4e8e\u63a8\u7406\u800c\u8a00\uff0c\u4e00\u4e2a\u91cd\u8981\u7684\u5c5e\u6027\u662f\u53ef\u4ee5\u88ab\u89c6\u4e3a\u6307\u793a\u53e6\u4e00\u5c5e\u6027\u5b58\u5728\u7684\u5c5e\u6027\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

\n\t\u672c\u7ae0\u533a\u5206\u4e86\u4e24\u79cd\u4e3b\u8981\u63a8\u7406\u7c7b\u578b\uff1a<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

    \n
  1. \n\t\t\u5f52\u7eb3\u63a8\u8bba<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Inductive inference<\/span>\uff09\uff1a\u4ece\u7c7b\u522b\u7684\u67d0\u4e9b\u6210\u5458\u63a8\u5e7f\u5230\u6240\u6709\u6210\u5458\u3002\u5176\u7279\u70b9\u662f<\/span>\u7ed3\u8bba\u8d85\u8d8a\u4e86\u8bc1\u636e\u8303\u56f4<\/span><\/strong>\uff0c\u56e0\u6b64\u524d\u63d0\u53ef\u80fd\u4e3a\u771f\uff0c\u4f46\u7ed3\u8bba\u53ef\u80fd\u4e3a\u5047\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n\t<\/li>\n
  2. \n\t\t\u6f14\u7ece\u63a8\u8bba<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Deductive inference<\/span>\uff09\uff1a\u7ed3\u8bba\u5fc5\u7136\u7531\u524d\u63d0\u5bfc\u51fa\u3002\u524d\u63d0\u7684\u771f\u5b9e\u6027\u662f\u7ed3\u8bba\u771f\u5b9e\u6027\u7684<\/span>\u4fdd\u8bc1<\/span><\/strong>\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n\t<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

    \n\t\u53ef\u88ab\u5224\u65ad\u4e3a\u771f\u6216\u5047\u7684\u4e8b\u7269\u662f<\/span>\u547d\u9898<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>proposition<\/span>\uff09\u3002\u6f14\u7ece\u63a8\u7406\u6240\u4f9d\u8d56\u7684\u5173\u7cfb\u662f<\/span>\u8574\u6db5<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>implication <\/span>\u6216<\/span> entailing<\/span>\uff09\uff1a\u5f53\u67d0\u4e2a\u547d\u9898\u7684\u771f\u5b9e\u6027\u4e0e\u53e6\u4e00\u547d\u9898\u7684\u865a\u5047\u6027\u4e0d\u4e00\u81f4\u65f6\uff0c\u5219\u524d\u8005\u8574\u6db5\u540e\u8005\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

    \n\t\u672c\u7ae0\u63d0\u51fa\u4e86<\/span>\u6f14\u7ece\u539f\u5219<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Principle of Deduction<\/span>\uff09\uff1a\u300c<\/span>\u51e1\u662f\u88ab\u771f\u547d\u9898\u6240\u8574\u6db5\u7684\uff0c\u90fd\u662f\u771f\u7684<\/span><\/strong>\u300d\u3002\u8bba\u8bc1\u7684<\/span>\u7ed3\u8bba\u6027<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>conclusiveness<\/span>\uff09<\/span>\u5b8c\u5168\u53d6\u51b3\u4e8e\u5176\u5f62\u5f0f<\/span><\/strong>\u3002\u5065\u5168\u63a8\u7406\u662f<\/span>\u6709\u6548\u63a8\u7406<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>valid reasoning<\/span>\uff09\uff0c\u6709\u6548\u6027\u53d6\u51b3\u4e8e\u72ec\u7acb\u4e8e\u7279\u6b8a\u4e8b\u5b9e\u7684\u7eaf\u7cb9\u5f62\u5f0f\u6761\u4ef6\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

    \n\t\u7b2c\u4e09\u7ae0\uff1a\u6f14\u7ece\u5f62\u5f0f\uff08<\/span>Deductive Forms<\/span>\uff09<\/span><\/span>
    \n<\/h3>\n

    \n\t\u672c\u7ae0\u6df1\u5165\u63a2\u8ba8\u4e86\u6f14\u7ece\u63a8\u7406\u7684\u5177\u4f53\u5f62\u5f0f\u3002\u4f5c\u8005\u6307\u51fa\uff0c\u7ed9\u51fa\u4e0d\u597d\u7684\u7406\u7531\u652f\u6301\u771f\u7ed3\u8bba\u7684\u95ee\u9898\u5728\u4e8e\uff0c\u8fd9\u4e9b\u7406\u7531<\/span>\u672a\u80fd\u8bc1\u660e\u7ed3\u8bba\u4e3a\u771f<\/span><\/strong>\u3002\u63a8\u7406\u4e4b\u6240\u4ee5\u53ef\u80fd\uff0c\u662f\u56e0\u4e3a\u4e00\u4e2a\u547d\u9898\u7684\u771f\u5047\u4e0e\u6240\u6709\u5176\u4ed6\u547d\u9898\u7684\u771f\u5047\u5e76\u975e\u72ec\u7acb\u7684\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

    \n\t\u903b\u8f91\u5b66\u5bb6\u8bc6\u522b\u51fa\u4efb\u610f\u4e24\u4e2a\u547d\u9898\u4e4b\u95f4\u53ef\u80fd\u5b58\u5728\u7684\u4e03\u79cd\u5173\u4e8e\u63a8\u8bba\u7684\u5173\u7cfb\uff1a<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

      \n
    1. \n\t\t\u72ec\u7acb\u6027<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Independence<\/span>\uff09\uff1a\u65e0\u63a8\u8bba\u53ef\u80fd\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n\t<\/li>\n
    2. \n\t\t\u7b49\u6548\u6027<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Equivalence<\/span>\uff09\uff1a\u4e24\u4e2a\u547d\u9898\u76f8\u4e92\u8574\u6db5\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n\t<\/li>\n
    3. \n\t\t\u6b21\u8574\u6db5<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Sub-implication<\/span>\uff09\uff1a\u7b2c\u4e00\u4e2a\u547d\u9898\u53ef\u7531\u7b2c\u4e8c\u4e2a\u63a8\u65ad\u51fa\uff0c\u4f46\u53cd\u4e4b\u4e0d\u7136\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n\t<\/li>\n
    4. \n\t\t\u8d85\u8574\u6db5<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Super-implication<\/span>\uff09\uff1a\u7b2c\u4e8c\u4e2a\u547d\u9898\u53ef\u7531\u7b2c\u4e00\u4e2a\u63a8\u65ad\u51fa\uff0c\u4f46\u53cd\u4e4b\u4e0d\u7136\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n\t<\/li>\n
    5. \n\t\t\u6b21\u5bf9\u7acb<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Sub-contrariety<\/span>\uff09\uff1a\u4e24\u8005\u4e0d\u80fd\u7686\u5047\uff0c\u53ef\u80fd\u7686\u771f\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n\t<\/li>\n
    6. \n\t\t\u5bf9\u7acb<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Contrariety<\/span>\uff09\uff1a\u4e24\u8005\u4e0d\u80fd\u7686\u771f\uff0c\u53ef\u80fd\u7686\u5047\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n\t<\/li>\n
    7. \n\t\t\u77db\u76fe<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Contradiction<\/span>\uff09\uff1a\u4e24\u8005\u5fc5\u4e00\u771f\u4e00\u5047\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n\t<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

      \n\t\u6f14\u7ece\u63a8\u7406\u4f9d\u8d56\u4e8e\u4e24\u4e2a\u57fa\u672c\u903b\u8f91\u539f\u5219\uff0c\u5b83\u4eec\u5171\u540c\u51b3\u5b9a\u4e86\u77db\u76fe\u7684\u6027\u8d28\uff1a<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

        \n
      1. \n\t\t\u975e\u77db\u76fe\u539f\u5219<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Principle of
        \n Non-Contradiction<\/span>\uff09\uff1a\u4efb\u4f55\u547d\u9898<\/span> P <\/span>\u4e0d\u80fd\u540c\u65f6\u4e3a\u771f\u548c\u4e3a\u5047\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n\t<\/li>\n
      2. \n\t\t\u6392\u4e2d\u539f\u5219<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Principle of Excluded
        \n Middle<\/span>\uff09\uff1a\u4efb\u4f55\u547d\u9898<\/span> P <\/span>\u8981\u4e48\u4e3a\u771f\uff0c\u8981\u4e48\u4e3a\u5047\uff0c\u4e0d\u5b58\u5728\u4e2d\u95f4\u7684\u53ef\u80fd\u6027\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n\t<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

        \n\t\u672c\u7ae0\u5c06\u547d\u9898\u6309\u8303\u56f4\u5206\u4e3a<\/span>\u5168\u79f0\u547d\u9898<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>universal proposition<\/span>\uff0c\u5982\u300c\u6240\u6709<\/span> X <\/span>\u90fd\u662f<\/span> Y<\/span>\u300d\uff09\u548c<\/span>\u7279\u79f0\u547d\u9898<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>particular proposition<\/span>\uff0c\u5982\u300c\u6709\u4e9b<\/span> X <\/span>\u662f<\/span> Y<\/span>\u300d\uff09\u3002\u5e76\u8ba8\u8bba\u4e86<\/span>\u76f4\u63a5\u63a8\u8bba<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>immediate inference<\/span>\uff09\uff0c\u5982<\/span>\u6362\u4f4d<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>conversion<\/span>\uff09\u548c<\/span>\u6362\u8d28<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>obversion<\/span>\uff09\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

        \n\t\u5468\u5ef6\u6027<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>distribution<\/span>\uff09\u5728\u6f14\u7ece\u63a8\u8bba\u4e2d\u81f3\u5173\u91cd\u8981\u3002\u5982\u679c\u4e00\u4e2a\u8bcd\u9879\u5728\u7ed3\u8bba\u4e2d\u5468\u5ef6\uff0c\u5219\u5b83\u5fc5\u987b\u5728\u76f8\u5e94\u7684\u524d\u63d0\u4e2d\u5468\u5ef6\uff0c\u5426\u5219\u5373\u4e3a\u8d85\u8d8a\u8bc1\u636e\u8303\u56f4\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

        \n\t\u4e09\u6bb5\u8bba<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>syllogism<\/span>\uff09\u88ab\u89c6\u4e3a\u5c06\u4e00\u822c\u89c4\u5219\u5e94\u7528\u4e8e\u7279\u5b9a\u6848\u4f8b\u4ee5\u63a8\u5bfc\u7ed3\u679c\u3002\u4e09\u6bb5\u8bba\u7684\u6709\u6548\u6027\u89c4\u5219\u5305\u62ec\uff1a<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

          \n
        • \n\t\t\u4e2d\u9879<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>middle term<\/span>\uff09\u5fc5\u987b\u5728\u81f3\u5c11\u4e00\u4e2a\u524d\u63d0\u4e2d\u5468\u5ef6\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n\t<\/li>\n
        • \n\t\t\u5982\u679c\u7ed3\u8bba\u4e2d\u67d0\u8bcd\u9879\u5468\u5ef6\uff0c\u5219\u5176\u5728\u524d\u63d0\u4e2d\u4e5f\u5fc5\u987b\u5468\u5ef6\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n\t<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

          \n\t\u4e09\u6bb5\u8bba\u6240\u4f9d\u636e\u7684\u4e3b\u8981\u539f\u5219\u662f<\/span>\u5e94\u7528\u539f\u5219<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Applicative Principle<\/span>\uff0c\u9002\u7528\u4e8e\u4e2a\u6848\uff09\uff0c\u4ee5\u53ca\u9002\u7528\u4e8e\u7c7b\u522b\u7684<\/span>\u6cdb\u8bba\u8303\u7574<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Dictum de omni et nullo<\/span>\uff09\u3002\u5173\u7cfb\u8bba\u8bc1\u7684\u6709\u6548\u6027\u53d6\u51b3\u4e8e\u5173\u7cfb\u662f\u5426\u5177\u5907<\/span>\u4f20\u9012\u6027<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>transitive<\/span>\uff09\uff0c\u4f8b\u5982\u300c\u5305\u542b\u5728\u5185\u300d\uff08<\/span>inclusion in<\/span>\uff09\u548c\u300c\u5728<\/span>…<\/span>\u4e4b\u524d\u300d\u662f\u4f20\u9012\u7684\uff0c\u4f46\u300c\u662f<\/span>…<\/span>\u7684\u7236\u4eb2\u300d\u662f<\/span>\u975e\u4f20\u9012<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>intransitive<\/span>\uff09\u7684\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

          \n\t\u672c\u7ae0\u8fd8\u8ba8\u8bba\u4e86<\/span>\u590d\u5408\u547d\u9898<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>compound proposition<\/span>\uff09\u7684\u63a8\u7406\u5f62\u5f0f\uff0c\u5982<\/span>\u8054\u8a00<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>conjunction<\/span>\uff09\u3001<\/span>\u5047\u8a00<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>hypothetical<\/span>\uff0c\u82e5<\/span> P <\/span>\u5219<\/span> Q<\/span>\uff09\u3001<\/span>\u9009\u8a00<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>alternative<\/span>\uff0c<\/span>P <\/span>\u6216<\/span> Q<\/span>\uff09\u3001<\/span>\u79bb\u8a00<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>disjunctive<\/span>\uff0c\u975e<\/span> P <\/span>\u4e14<\/span> Q<\/span>\uff09\u3002\u9488\u5bf9\u5047\u8a00\u8bba\u8bc1\uff0c\u53ea\u6709<\/span>\u80af\u5b9a\u524d\u4ef6<\/span><\/strong>\u548c<\/span>\u5426\u5b9a\u540e\u4ef6<\/span><\/strong>\u662f\u6709\u6548\u7684\u5f62\u5f0f\u3002<\/span>\u80af\u5b9a\u540e\u4ef6\u7684\u8c2c\u8bef<\/span><\/strong>\u975e\u5e38\u5e38\u89c1\uff0c\u5b83\u9519\u8bef\u5730\u5047\u8bbe\u4e86\u524d\u4ef6\u4e2d\u6307\u5b9a\u7684\u6761\u4ef6\u662f\u786e\u4fdd\u540e\u4ef6\u4e3a\u771f\u7684\u552f\u4e00\u6761\u4ef6\u3002\u6700\u540e\uff0c<\/span>\u4e24\u96be\u63a8\u7406<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Dilemma<\/span>\uff09\u88ab\u63cf\u8ff0\u4e3a\u4e00\u79cd\u4fee\u8f9e\u6027\u7684\u8bba\u8bc1\u6280\u5de7\uff0c\u65e8\u5728\u8bc1\u660e\u4e00\u4e2a\u4e0d\u53d7\u6b22\u8fce\u7684\u7ed3\u8bba\u6e90\u4e8e\u4e24\u4e2a\u9009\u9879\u4e2d\u7684\u4efb\u4f55\u4e00\u4e2a\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

          \n\t\u7b2c\u56db\u7ae0\uff1a\u6b67\u4e49\u6027\u3001\u4e0d\u786e\u5b9a\u6027\u4e0e\u5173\u8054\u6027\uff08<\/span>Ambiguity, Indefiniteness, and Relevance<\/span>\uff09<\/span><\/span>
          \n<\/h3>\n

          \n\t\u672c\u7ae0\u5173\u6ce8\u8bed\u8a00\u7684\u4f7f\u7528\u4e0e\u6e05\u6670\u601d\u8003\u7684\u5173\u7cfb\u3002\u8bcd\u8bed\u662f<\/span>\u7b26\u53f7<\/span><\/strong>\uff0c\u901a\u8fc7\u7ea6\u5b9a\u4fd7\u6210\u6765\u6307\u793a\u67d0\u7269\u3002\u8981\u7406\u89e3\u4e00\u4e2a\u8bcd\uff0c\u5fc5\u987b\u77e5\u9053\u5b83\u5728\u7279\u5b9a<\/span>\u8bed\u5883<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>context<\/span>\uff09\u4e2d\u7684\u7528\u6cd5\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

          \n\t\u4f5c\u8005\u533a\u5206\u4e86\u8bed\u8a00\u7684\u4e09\u79cd\u7f3a\u9677\uff1a<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

            \n
          1. \n\t\t\u4e0d\u786e\u5b9a\u6027<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Indefiniteness<\/span>\uff09\uff1a\u8bcd\u8bed\u7684<\/span>\u6307\u79f0\u7269<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>referend<\/span>\uff09\u5e76\u975e\u72ec\u4e00\u65e0\u4e8c\u5730\u786e\u5b9a\uff0c\u6240\u6709\u63cf\u8ff0\u6027\u8bcd\u8bed\u90fd\u6216\u591a\u6216\u5c11\u5b58\u5728\u4e0d\u786e\u5b9a\u6027\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n\t<\/li>\n
          2. \n\t\t\u6a21\u7cca\u6027<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Vagueness<\/span>\uff09\uff1a\u5f53\u8bcd\u8bed\u7684\u6307\u79f0\u7269\u6d89\u53ca\u8fde\u7eed\u53d8\u5316\u65f6\uff0c\u4f7f\u5f97\u6211\u4eec\u5728\u7279\u5b9a\u60c5\u5883\u4e2d\u65e0\u6cd5\u5224\u65ad\u8be5\u8bcd\u662f\u5426\u9002\u7528\uff08\u4f8b\u5982\uff1a\u300c\u79c3\u5934\u300d\u3001\u300c\u6210\u529f\u5546\u4eba\u300d\uff09\u3002\u4f5c\u8005\u8b66\u544a\uff0c\u575a\u6301\u5728\u6ca1\u6709\u660e\u786e\u754c\u9650\u7684\u5730\u65b9\u5212\u5b9a\u6e05\u6670\u754c\u9650\u662f\u4e00\u79cd\u9519\u8bef\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n\t<\/li>\n
          3. \n\t\t\u6b67\u4e49\u6027<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Ambiguity<\/span>\uff09\uff1a\u8fd9\u662f<\/span>\u6700\u6709\u5bb3<\/span><\/strong>\u7684\u7f3a\u9677\uff0c\u6307\u540c\u4e00\u4e2a\u8bcd\u88ab\u7528\u6765\u6307\u793a\u4e0d\u540c\u7684\u6307\u79f0\u7269\uff0c\u800c\u8bf4\u8bdd\u8005\u5e76\u672a\u610f\u8bc6\u5230\u8fd9\u79cd\u8f6c\u6362\u3002\u6b67\u4e49\u6027\u5728\u6d89\u53ca\u653f\u6cbb\u3001\u7ecf\u6d4e\u3001\u5b97\u6559\u7b49<\/span>\u5145\u6ee1\u60c5\u611f\u7684\u8ba8\u8bba<\/span><\/strong>\u4e2d\u5c24\u5176\u666e\u904d\u548c\u6709\u5bb3\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n\t<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

            \n\t\u5728\u8bba\u8bc1\u8fc7\u7a0b\u4e2d\uff0c\u5fc5\u987b\u8b66\u60d5\u8bcd\u8bed\u6307\u79f0\u7269\u7684\u8f6c\u79fb\u3002\u903b\u8f91\u5b66\u5bb6\u575a\u6301\u4e09\u6bb5\u8bba\u7684<\/span>\u4e2d\u9879\u4e0d\u53ef\u542b\u7cca<\/span><\/strong>\uff0c\u56e0\u4e3a\u4e2d\u9879\u5fc5\u987b\u786e\u4fdd\u524d\u63d0\u5177\u6709\u76f8\u540c\u7684\u6307\u79f0\u70b9\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

            \n\t\u672c\u7ae0\u7740\u91cd\u63a2\u8ba8<\/span>\u7a83\u53d6\u8bba\u9898\u7684\u8c2c\u8bef<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>begging the question<\/span>\uff09\uff1a\u5c06\u672c\u5e94\u8bc1\u660e\u4e3a\u7ed3\u8bba\u7684\u8bba\u70b9\u4f5c\u4e3a\u524d\u63d0\u4f7f\u7528\u3002\u8fd9\u79cd\u8c2c\u8bef\u5e38\u88ab\u4e0d\u6e05\u6670\u3001\u542b\u7cca\u7684\u8bed\u8a00\u6240\u63a9\u76d6\u3002\u4f8b\u5982\uff0c\u901a\u8fc7\u300c\u771f\u6b63\u7684<\/span> X<\/span>\u300d\u8fd9\u6837\u7684\u9650\u5b9a\u6765\u4e3a\u53d7\u8d28\u7591\u7684\u6982\u62ec\u8fa9\u62a4\uff0c\u53ef\u80fd\u6700\u7ec8\u5c06\u7ed3\u8bba\u5d4c\u5165\u4e86\u672f\u8bed\u7684\u5b9a\u4e49\u4e2d\uff0c\u4ece\u800c\u7a83\u53d6\u4e86\u8bba\u9898\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

            \n\t\u5b9a\u4e49<\/span><\/strong>\u672c\u8eab\u662f<\/span>\u6e05\u6670\u601d\u7ef4\u5df2\u7ecf\u8fbe\u6210\u7684\u4fe1\u53f7<\/span><\/strong>\uff0c\u800c\u975e\u8fbe\u6210\u6e05\u6670\u601d\u7ef4\u7684\u5de5\u5177\u3002\u6b64\u5916\uff0c\u672c\u7ae0\u4ecb\u7ecd\u4e86<\/span>\u903b\u8f91\u5212\u5206<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Logical Division<\/span>\uff09\uff0c\u5373\u5c06\u7c7b\u522b\uff08\u5c5e\uff0c<\/span>genus<\/span>\uff09\u7ec6\u5206\u4e3a\u5b50\u7c7b\uff08\u79cd\uff0c<\/span>species<\/span>\uff09\u7684\u8fc7\u7a0b\uff0c\u8fd9\u6709\u52a9\u4e8e\u66f4\u6df1\u5165\u5730\u7406\u89e3\u4e00\u822c\u672f\u8bed\u7684\u7279\u5f81\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

            \n\t\u6700\u540e\u8ba8\u8bba\u4e86<\/span>\u4e0d\u76f8\u5173\u7ed3\u8bba\u7684\u8c2c\u8bef<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>fallacy of ignoratio elenchi<\/span>\uff09\uff1a\u8bc1\u660e\u4e86\u4e00\u4e2a\u4e0e\u539f\u5b9a\u76ee\u6807\u4e0d\u540c\u7684\u7ed3\u8bba\u3002\u53e6\u4e00\u4e2a\u76f8\u5173\u8c2c\u8bef\u662f<\/span>\u7279\u6b8a\u8fa9\u62a4<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Special pleading<\/span>\uff09\uff0c\u5373\u5728\u6d89\u53ca\u81ea\u8eab\u7684\u60c5\u51b5\u4e0b\u63a5\u53d7\uff08\u6216\u62d2\u7edd\uff09\u4e00\u4e2a\u5728\u5bf9\u7acb\u60c5\u51b5\u4e0b\u4f1a\u62d2\u7edd\uff08\u6216\u63a5\u53d7\uff09\u7684\u8bba\u70b9\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

            \n\t\u7b2c\u4e94\u7ae0\uff1a\u8bc1\u636e\u7684\u8bc4\u4f30\uff08<\/span>The Estimation of Evidence<\/span>\uff09<\/span><\/span>
            \n<\/h3>\n

            \n\t\u672c\u7ae0\u63a2\u8ba8\u8bc1\u636e\u4e0e\u5176\u6240\u8bc1\u5b9e\u4e8b\u7269\u4e4b\u95f4\u7684\u8054\u7cfb\u3002\u8c03\u67e5\u8bc1\u636e\u7684\u8fc7\u7a0b\u53ef\u5206\u4e3a\u4e24\u79cd\u6001\u5ea6\uff1a\u5f8b\u5e08\uff08\u4e3a\u65e2\u5b9a\u7ed3\u8bba\u9009\u62e9\u652f\u6301\u6027\u6570\u636e\uff09\u4e0e\u4fa6\u63a2\uff08\u4ece\u6570\u636e\u4e2d\u786e\u5b9a\u672a\u77e5\u7684\u7ed3\u8bba\uff09\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

            \n\t\u5f52\u7eb3\u63a8\u8bba<\/span><\/strong>\u7684\u4e09\u79cd\u6a21\u5f0f<\/span>\u2014\u2014<\/span>\u6a21\u62df\uff08<\/span>analogy<\/span>\uff09\u3001\u6982\u62ec\uff08<\/span>generalization<\/span>\uff09\u3001\u95f4\u63a5\u8bc1\u636e\uff08<\/span>circumstantial evidence<\/span>\uff09<\/span>\u2014\u2014<\/span>\u672c\u8d28\u4e0a\u76f8\u4f3c\uff0c\u90fd\u57fa\u4e8e\u5bf9<\/span>\u76f8\u5173\u76f8\u4f3c\u70b9\u548c\u5dee\u5f02\u70b9<\/span><\/strong>\u7684\u8bc6\u522b\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

            \n\t\u95f4\u63a5\u8bc1\u636e<\/span><\/strong>\u662f\u4e00\u79cd\u63a8\u7406\u5f62\u5f0f\uff0c\u5176\u4e2d\u4e00\u7ec4\u8bc1\u636e\u4e8b\u5b9e<\/span>\u7d2f\u79ef\u5730<\/span><\/strong>\u6307\u5411\u67d0\u4e2a\u786e\u5b9a\u7684\u7ed3\u8bba\u3002\u7531\u4e8e\u7ed3\u8bba\u53ea\u662f<\/span>\u53ef\u80fd<\/span><\/strong>\u7684\uff0c\u800c\u975e\u786e\u5b9a\u7684\uff0c\u8fd9\u79cd\u63a8\u7406\u662f<\/span>\u5f52\u7eb3\u6027<\/span><\/strong>\u7684\uff0c\u56e0\u4e3a\u5b83\u6d89\u53ca\u6982\u62ec\u548c\u6a21\u62df\u3002\u63a8\u7406\u7684\u53ef\u9760\u6027\u53d6\u51b3\u4e8e<\/span> (1) <\/span>\u6bcf\u4e2a\u63a5\u53d7\u7684\u4e8b\u5b9e\u662f\u5426\u90fd\u88ab\u7ed3\u8bba<\/span> P <\/span>\u9002\u5f53\u89e3\u91ca\uff1b<\/span>(2) <\/span>\u76f8\u5173\u4e8b\u5b9e\u672a\u88ab\u5ffd\u7565\u7684\u53ef\u80fd\u6027\uff1b<\/span>(3) <\/span>\u77db\u76fe\u4e8b\u5b9e\u4f1a\u88ab\u8bb0\u5f55\u7684\u53ef\u80fd\u6027\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

            \n\t\u79d1\u5b66\u5bb6\u5bfb\u6c42\u5efa\u7acb\u7684<\/span>\u56e0\u679c\u7279\u6027<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>causal properties<\/span>\uff09\u88ab\u5b9a\u4e49\u4e3a\u7ed3\u679c\uff08<\/span>Y<\/span>\uff09\u7684<\/span>\u5fc5\u8981\u4e14\u5145\u5206\u6761\u4ef6<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>X<\/span>\uff09\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

            \n\t\u8fd9\u5bfc\u51fa\u4e86\u4e24\u4e2a\u5b9e\u9a8c\u63a2\u7a76\u539f\u5219\uff1a<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

              \n
            1. \n\t\t\u4e00\u81f4\u6027\u539f\u5219<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Principle of Agreement<\/span>\uff09\uff1a<\/span>\u5f53\u7ed3\u679c\u51fa\u73b0\u65f6\uff0c\u7f3a\u5e2d\u7684\u4e8b\u7269\u4e0d\u53ef\u80fd\u662f\u539f\u56e0<\/span><\/strong>\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n\t<\/li>\n
            2. \n\t\t\u5dee\u5f02\u6027\u539f\u5219<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Principle of Difference<\/span>\uff09\uff1a<\/span>\u5f53\u7ed3\u679c\u672a\u51fa\u73b0\u65f6\uff0c\u5728\u573a\u7684\u4e8b\u7269\u4e0d\u53ef\u80fd\u662f\u539f\u56e0<\/span><\/strong>\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n\t<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

              \n\t\u4f5c\u8005\u8b66\u544a\u8981\u907f\u514d<\/span>\u540e\u6b64\u8c2c\u8bef<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>post hoc ergo propter hoc<\/span>\uff09\uff0c\u5373\u5c06\u7d27\u63a5\u5728\u67d0\u4e8b\u4e4b\u540e\u53d1\u751f\u7684\u4e8b\u89c6\u4e3a\u8be5\u4e8b\u7684\u539f\u56e0\uff0c\u8fd9\u6df7\u6dc6\u4e86\u65f6\u95f4\u4e0a\u7684\u5de7\u5408\u4e0e\u56e0\u679c\u8054\u7cfb\u3002<\/span>\u5b9e\u9a8c<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>experiment<\/span>\uff09\u63d0\u4f9b\u4e86\u6700\u4ee4\u4eba\u6ee1\u610f\u7684\u7a0b\u5e8f\uff0c\u5373\u523b\u610f\u63a7\u5236\u6761\u4ef6\u6765\u542f\u52a8\u90a3\u4e9b\u89c2\u5bdf\u8005\u5e0c\u671b\u89c2\u5bdf\u5176\u7ed3\u679c\u7684\u53d8\u5316\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

              \n\t\u7b2c\u516d\u7ae0\uff1a\u6211\u4eec\u4fe1\u5ff5\u7684\u57fa\u7840\uff08<\/span>The Grounds of Our Beliefs<\/span>\uff09<\/span><\/span>
              \n<\/h3>\n

              \n\t\u6211\u4eec\u901a\u5e38\u62b1\u6301\u8bb8\u591a\u7f3a\u4e4f\u8bc1\u636e\u7684\u4fe1\u5ff5\u3002\u4e00\u4e2a\u4fe1\u5ff5\u662f<\/span>\u53ef\u80fd<\/span><\/strong>\u7684\uff0c\u5f53\u6709\u8bc1\u636e\u652f\u6301\u5b83\uff0c\u4e14\u6ca1\u6709\u51b3\u5b9a\u6027\u7684\u8bc1\u636e\u53cd\u5bf9\u5b83\u65f6\u3002<\/span>\u53ef\u80fd\u6027\u53d6\u51b3\u4e8e\u8bc1\u636e<\/span><\/strong>\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

              \n\t\u76f8\u4fe1<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Believing<\/span>\uff09\u5fc5\u987b\u4e0e<\/span>\u77e5\u8bc6<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Knowledge<\/span>\uff09\u533a\u5206\u5f00\u6765\uff0c\u56e0\u4e3a\u4fe1\u5ff5\u53ef\u80fd\u662f\u9519\u8bef\u7684\uff0c\u4f46\u77e5\u8bc6\u4e0d\u53ef\u80fd\u9519\u8bef\u3002<\/span>\u5b9e\u7528\u786e\u5b9a\u6027<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>practical certainty<\/span>\uff09\u662f\u4e00\u79cd\u9ad8\u5ea6\u7684\u53ef\u80fd\u6027\uff0c\u8db3\u4ee5\u8ba9\u7406\u6027\u7684\u4eba\u636e\u6b64\u91c7\u53d6\u884c\u52a8\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

              \n\t\u672c\u7ae0\u5c06\u4fe1\u5ff5\u5206\u4e3a\u4e24\u7c7b\uff1a<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

                \n
              1. \n\t\t\u65e0\u6839\u636e\u4fe1\u5ff5<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Underived beliefs<\/span>\uff09\uff1a\u5305\u62ec\u5173\u4e8e\u611f\u89c9\u7ecf\u9a8c\u548c\u8bb0\u5fc6\u7684\u4fe1\u5ff5\uff0c\u4ee5\u53ca<\/span>\u524d\u53cd\u601d\u7684\u5e38\u8bc6\u4fe1\u5ff5<\/span><\/strong>\uff08\u5373\u76f4\u89c9\u4fe1\u5ff5\uff0c\u4f8b\u5982\u5404\u79cd\u903b\u8f91\u539f\u5219\uff09\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n\t<\/li>\n
              2. \n\t\t\u6709\u6839\u636e\u4fe1\u5ff5<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>Derived beliefs<\/span>\uff09\uff1a\u901a\u8fc7<\/span>\u8bc1\u8bcd<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>testimony<\/span>\uff0c\u4ed6\u4eba\u6240\u544a\uff09\u6216<\/span>\u63a8\u8bba<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>inference<\/span>\uff09\u83b7\u5f97\u7684\u4fe1\u5ff5\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n\t<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                \n\t\u83b7\u5f97\u975e\u76f4\u89c9\u4fe1\u5ff5\u7684\u4e94\u79cd\u65b9\u5f0f\u88ab\u5217\u51fa\uff1a<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

                  \n
                1. \n\t\t\u7ecf\u5e38\u542c\u95fb<\/span><\/strong>\uff0c\u4ece\u672a\u8d28\u7591\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n\t<\/li>\n
                2. \n\t\t\u4f9d\u8d56\u6743\u5a01<\/span><\/strong>\uff08\u4f8b\u5982\u7236\u6bcd\u3001\u6559\u4f1a\u3001\u793e\u4f1a\u5236\u5ea6\uff09\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n\t<\/li>\n
                3. \n\t\t\u63a5\u53d7\u4e13\u5bb6\u8bc1\u8bcd<\/span><\/strong>\uff0c\u4f46\u8b66\u544a\u4e0d\u8981\u8ba9\u4e13\u5bb6\u5728\u5176\u4e13\u4e1a\u8303\u56f4\u4e4b\u5916\u5bf9\u6211\u4eec\u53d1\u53f7\u65bd\u4ee4\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n\t<\/li>\n
                4. \n\t\t\u8bf4\u670d\u6cd5<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>method of persuasion<\/span>\uff09\uff1a\u4f7f\u7528\u6280\u5de7\u6216\u5524\u8d77\u60c5\u611f\u6001\u5ea6\u6765\u786e\u4fdd\u4ed6\u4eba\u63a5\u53d7\u547d\u9898\uff08\u4f8b\u5982<\/span> Stanley Baldwin <\/span>\u5173\u4e8e\u300c\u56fd\u5bb6\u4e4b\u8239\u300d\u7684\u6bd4\u55bb\uff09\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n\t<\/li>\n
                5. \n\t\t\u4fe1\u670d\u6cd5<\/span><\/strong>\uff08<\/span>method of conviction<\/span>\uff09\uff1a\u900f\u8fc7\u5c55\u793a\u547d\u9898\u6e90\u81ea<\/span>\u5065\u5168\u7684\u7406\u7531<\/span><\/strong>\uff08\u5373\u8db3\u591f\u7684\u8bc1\u636e\uff09\u6765\u786e\u4fdd\u63a5\u53d7\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n\t<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                  \n\t\u4e0d\u540c\u7684\u9648\u8ff0\u9700\u8981\u4e0d\u540c\u7c7b\u578b\u7684\u8bc1\u636e\uff1a\u6570\u5b66\u9648\u8ff0\u9700\u8981\u4e25\u683c\u7684<\/span>\u6f14\u7ece\u63a8\u7406<\/span><\/strong>\uff1b\u7269\u7406\u79d1\u5b66\u9648\u8ff0\u7684\u6700\u7ec8\u68c0\u9a8c\u662f<\/span>\u5b9e\u9a8c\u786e\u8ba4<\/span><\/strong>\uff1b\u793e\u4f1a\u79d1\u5b66\u9648\u8ff0\u5219\u5e94\u4ee5\u89c2\u5bdf\u548c<\/span>\u7edf\u8ba1\u8c03\u67e5<\/span><\/strong>\u6240\u5f97\u7684\u8bc1\u636e\u4e3a\u57fa\u7840\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

                  \n\t\u603b\u7ed3\u800c\u8a00\uff0c\u589e\u52a0\u77e5\u8bc6\u6216\u5f62\u6210\u5408\u7406\u4fe1\u5ff5\u7684\u552f\u4e00\u53ef\u9760\u65b9\u6cd5\u662f<\/span>\u9886\u609f\u6211\u4eec\u5df2\u77e5\u4e8b\u7269\u4e0e\u672a\u77e5\u4e8b\u7269\u4e4b\u95f4\u7684\u76f8\u5173\u6027<\/span><\/strong>\u3002<\/span><\/span>\n<\/p>\n

                  \n\t <\/span>\n<\/p>\n

                  \n\t